daniel chigunwe
Elliot Ziwira
At The Bookstore
Were it not for cohesive devices that artists exploit in linking up reality and fictional experiences, reading books would become cumbersome and monotonous. For that reason, writers should understand how these devices function for them to effectively use them.
Artists may tap into the more than 200 literary devices at their disposal, some of which are; metaphors, symbolism,sarcasm, irony, imagery, paradoxes, proverbs, oxymorons and similes.
However, without coherence and cohesion in their expressions, writers might as well stop writing altogether.
According to Hansan (1984), cohesion is inspired by the need to use specific grammatical structures or lexical items called cohesive devices to link sentences, not only grammatically, but logically.
As Swales (1985), notes, there is an over abundance of cohesive devices that writers can use to achieve cohesion and coherence in texts. These include reference, substitution, ellipsis and lexical cohesion.
Like markers of coherence and logical connectors, which can be used to achieve cohesion in texts, cohesive devices serve the purpose of knitting texts together. Without them, texts will hang out loosely like threads out of context.
In the fashion of the weaver, the competent writer uses his/her skill to tie his/her ideas into a meaningful discourse or finished product.
However, unlike logical connectors and markers of coherence, whose sole purpose is to conceptualise function and notion, that is, how certain grammatical structures are employed to perform particular functions or express specific ideas, cohesive devices focus on structure and how sentences are linked grammatically (Kennedy and Bolitho, 1984).
Therefore, the distinction that exists in cohesive devices on one hand, and coherence markers and logical connectors on the other, separates cohesion and coherence.
Though only a thin line exists to separate them, it is imperative that this distinction is understood for one to grasp all the functions of cohesive devices.
Hansan (1984) avers that coherence refers to the way in which a text is perceived by a listener or reader as “hanging together”. Hence, since coherence is reader or listener oriented, it can be achieved even in the absence of an overt marker as suggested by the following:
Trish: Tomorrow is the 30th of January 2022.
Munashe: Our boss said our finances are tight this month.
Although there appears to be no logical connection in the above dialogue, coherence is nonetheless achieved, as the listener/reader can easily decipher the implicature. He/she can provide the “missing” parts.
If the first sentence can be perceived to indicate the 30th as being Trish’s birthday, then Munashe’s utterance is easily understood.
Cohesion on the other hand, draws inspiration from the need to use specific grammatical structures, or lexical items known as cohesive devices, in order to link sentences both grammatically and logically.
Kenworthy (1991) identified three types of cohesive devices; reference, substitution, and ellipsis as well as lexical cohesion.
Reference obtains if a word is linked to refer to something which has been mentioned, or is about to be mentioned, in the immediacy of a particular text.
Substitution works in cahoots with ellipsis.
As devices of cohesion in texts, substitution and ellipsis help in averting repetition which makes texts monotonous. Since substitution and ellipsis work closely in knitting texts, it is important that the thin line that separates them is clearly understood.
Whereas substitution entails replacement of one item by another, ellipsis is “substitution by zero” (Kenworthy, 1991). This means the item that should have been otherwise repeated is omitted altogether, and can only be retrieved from what has just been heard or read. Substitution takes place when either a noun or a verb is replaced by another. Nouns are usually substituted by “one” or “ones”; verbs by forms of the verb “do” as illustrated below:
Noun: You will need more eggs for the salad. The ones in the fridge are for the scones.
Verb: Nicole remained in the chapel for the after mass prayers. I did too.
On the other hand ellipsis, which is “substitution by zero”, is divided into three categories (Bloor and Bloor, 1995). These are nominal, verbal and clausal. In nominal ellipsis a noun is omitted, but the sentence retains its cohesion as expressed in the following sentence:
I asked Mr John Norman Bhebhe to buy me an apple and he bought me two.
The noun apple referred to in the first part of the sentence is omitted from the slot after the word “two” to arrest repetition, which could have rendered the expression absurd.
Verbal ellipsis occurs when a verb is omitted as is illustrated thus: Is it going to rain tomorrow? It may or it may not? The verb rain is omitted. In clausal ellipsis a whole clause is omitted, but cohesion is not affected, as in the following sentence: Roselyne envies those journalists who can work without a break; she cannot. This helps in avoiding absurdity and monotony in texts, considering that readers and listeners are usually impatient.
Another example of cohesive devices is lexical cohesion, which refers to the repetition of a word or use of a synonym in a text in order to achieve unity as in the following passage:
A lot of students find it taxing to express themselves in English, particularly at college or university. Such students can benefit immensely from ESP programmes, which are an integral part of tertiary curricula, and are targeted specifically at learners who are not native speakers of the language.
Notably “students” is repeated in the second sentence, but replaced by “learners” towards the end of it. “English” is replaced by “the language” “college or university” is changed to “tertiary”.
The following passage may also help in putting lexical cohesion in context:
Although some illnesses are attributed to spirits, the Shona also see most illnesses as a result of witchcraft. Witchcraft is non-spiritual, but is linked with spiritual entities like zvitupwani (“witch cronies”), who have no physical identification but are used in this practice. Witches are seen as malicious human beings, especially older women who are motivated by hatred and jealousy. It is also a nocturnal craft with a nightmare quality” (Shoko, 1994:54, cited in Chitando and Klagba, 2013:25).
Notice that the word “illnesses” is repeated in the first sentence, and the word “witchcraft” which ends the expression is repeated as the opener of the second sentence. The word “witchcraft” is later replaced by “practice” and “craft”.
Cohesive devices, if properly executed, are thus, an integral component of literature, in that they result in effective writing and reading; which are the backbone of effective communication, as logical sentences or utterances are easily understood.
If sentences hang loosely or separately, like oil and water, coherence is said to be at fault, and as a consequence, no communication will take place. A single sentence may also lack meaning in itself, and if this happens, cohesion is said to be compromised. Therefore, there is a need for artists to hone their cohesive and coherent competence for them to produce artistic products that will not only appeal to the reader’s tastes, but will remain ensconced in his/her psyche even long after the reading task.
Besides logical connectors, coherence markers and cohesive devices identified by Kenworthy (1991) and Bloor and Bloor (1995), coherence and cohesion can also be achieved by using conjunctions or discourse markers; while, notwithstanding, nonetheless, despite, in spite of, although, but, meanwhile, etc. Articles; a, the, and, an; may also come handy.
A writer worth his or her salt will always strive to achieve cohesion and coherence through adept use of the cohesive devices and lexical items at his/her disposal.
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